Trigonometric functions

(Redirected from Cosine)

"Sine" redirects here. For other uses, see Sine (disambiguation).

"Cosine" redirects here. For the similarity measure, see Cosine similarity.

Trigonometry
History Usage Functions Inverse functions Further reading
Reference
List of identities Exact constants Generating trigonometric tables
Euclidean theory
Law of sines Law of cosines Law of tangents Pythagorean theorem
Calculus
Trigonometric substitution Integrals of functions Derivatives of functions Integrals of inverses

In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions) are functions of an angle. They are used to relate the angles of a triangle to the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Trigonometric functions are important in the study of triangles and modeling periodic phenomena, among many other applications.

The most familiar trigonometric functions are the sine, cosine, and tangent. The sine function takes an angle and tells the length of the y-component (rise) of that triangle. The cosine function takes an angle and tells the length of x-component (run) of a triangle. The tangent function takes an angle and tells the slope (y-component divided by the x-component). More precise definitions are detailed below. Trigonometric functions are commonly defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle containing the angle, and can equivalently be defined as the lengths of various line segments from a unit circle. More modern definitions express them as infinite series or as solutions of certain differential equations, allowing their extension to arbitrary positive and negative values and even to complex numbers.

Trigonometric functions have a wide range of uses including computing unknown lengths and angles in triangles (often right triangles). In this use, trigonometric functions are used for instance in navigation, engineering, and physics. A common use in elementary physics is resolving a vector into Cartesian coordinates. The sine and cosine functions are also commonly used to model periodic function phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day length, and average temperature variations through the year.

In modern usage, there are six basic trigonometric functions, which are tabulated here along with equations relating them to one another. Especially in the case of the last four, these relations are often taken as the definitions of those functions, but one can define them equally well geometrically or by other means and then derive these relations.

[ Right-angled triangle definitions

A right triangle always includes a 90° (π/2 radians) angle, here labeled C. Angles A and B may vary. Trigonometric functions specify the relationships among side lengths and interior angles of a right triangle.

The notion that there should be some standard correspondence between the lengths of the sides of a triangle and the angles of the triangle comes as soon as one recognizes that similar triangles maintain the same ratios between their sides. That is, for any similar triangle the ratio of the hypotenuse (for example) and another of the sides remains the same. If the hypotenuse is twice as long, so are the sides. It is these ratios that the trigonometric functions express.

In order to define the trigonometric functions for the angle A, start with any right triangle that contains the angle A. The three sides of the triangle are named as follows:

The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, in this case side h. The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled triangle.
The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle we are interested in (angle A), in this case side a.
The adjacent side is the side that is in contact with (adjacent to) both the angle we are interested in (angle A) and the right angle, in this case side b.

In ordinary Euclidean geometry, the inside angles of every triangle total 180° (π radians). Therefore, in a right-angled triangle, the two non-right angles total 90° (π/2 radians), so each of these angles must be in the range of 0° – 90°. The following definitions apply to angles in this 0° – 90° range. (They can be extended to the full set of real arguments by using the unit circle, or by requiring certain symmetries and that they be periodic functions.)^{[clarification needed]}

The trigonometric functions are summarized in the following table and described in more detail below. The angle θ is the angle between the hypotenuse and the adjacent line – the angle at A in the accompanying diagram.

Function	Abbreviation	Description	Identities (using radians)
Sine	sin	$\frac {\textrm{opposite}} {\textrm{hypotenuse}}$	$\sin \theta \equiv \cos \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \equiv \frac{1}{\csc \theta}$
Cosine	cos	$\frac {\textrm{adjacent}} {\textrm{hypotenuse}}$	$\cos \theta \equiv \sin \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \equiv \frac{1}{\sec \theta}\,$
Tangent	tan (or tg)	$\frac {\textrm{opposite}} {\textrm{adjacent}}$	$\tan \theta \equiv \frac{\sin \theta}{\cos \theta} \equiv \cot \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \equiv \frac{1}{\cot \theta}$
Cotangent	cot (or ctg or ctn)	$\frac {\textrm{adjacent}} {\textrm{opposite}}$	$\cot \theta \equiv \frac{\cos \theta}{\sin \theta} \equiv \tan \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \equiv \frac{1}{\tan \theta}$
Secant	sec	$\frac {\textrm{hypotenuse}} {\textrm{adjacent}}$	$\sec \theta \equiv \csc \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \equiv\frac{1}{\cos \theta}$
Cosecant	csc (or cosec)	$\frac {\textrm{hypotenuse}} {\textrm{opposite}}$	$\csc \theta \equiv \sec \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) \equiv\frac{1}{\sin \theta}$

The sine, tangent, and secant functions of an angle constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle. The number θ is the length of the curve; thus angles are being measured in radians. The secant and tangent functions rely on a fixed vertical line and the sine function on a moving vertical line. ("Fixed" in this context means not moving as θ changes; "moving" means depending on θ.) Thus, as θ goes from 0 up to a right angle, sin θ goes from 0 to 1, tan θ goes from 0 to ∞, and sec θ goes from 1 to ∞.

The cosine, cotangent, and cosecant functions of an angle θ constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle. The functions whose names have the prefix co- use horizontal lines where the others use vertical lines.

[ Sine

The sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

$\sin A = \frac {\textrm{opposite}} {\textrm{hypotenuse}} = \frac {a} {h}.$

Note that this ratio does not depend on size of the particular right triangle chosen, as long as it contains the angle A, since all such triangles are similar.

[ Cosine

The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

$\cos A = \frac {\textrm{adjacent}} {\textrm{hypotenuse}} = \frac {b} {h}.$

[ Tangent

The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side. In our case

$\tan A = \frac {\textrm{opposite}} {\textrm{adjacent}} = \frac {a} {b}.$

[ Reciprocal functions

The remaining three functions are best defined using the above three functions.

The cosecant csc(A), or cosec(A), is the reciprocal of sin(A), i.e. the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side:

$\csc A = \frac {\textrm{hypotenuse}} {\textrm{opposite}} = \frac {h} {a}.$

The secant sec(A) is the reciprocal of cos(A), i.e. the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent side:

$\sec A = \frac {\textrm{hypotenuse}} {\textrm{adjacent}} = \frac {h} {b}.$

The cotangent cot(A) is the reciprocal of tan(A), i.e. the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the opposite side:

$\cot A = \frac {\textrm{adjacent}} {\textrm{opposite}} = \frac {b} {a}.$

[ Slope definitions

Equivalent to the right-triangle definitions the trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of the rise, run, and slope of a line segment relative to some horizontal line. The slope is commonly taught as "rise over run" or rise/run. The three main trigonometric functions are commonly taught in the order sine, cosine, tangent. With a unit circle, the following correspondence of definitions exists:

Sine is first, rise is first. Sine takes an angle and tells the rise when the length of the line is 1.
Cosine is second, run is second. Cosine takes an angle and tells the run when the length of the line is 1.
Tangent is the slope formula that combines the rise and run. Tangent takes an angle and tells the slope, and tells the rise when the run is 1.

This shows the main use of tangent and arctangent: converting between the two ways of telling the slant of a line, i.e., angles and slopes. (Note that the arctangent or "inverse tangent" is not to be confused with the cotangent, which is cos divided by sin.)

While the radius of the circle makes no difference for the slope (the slope does not depend on the length of the slanted line), it does affect rise and run. To adjust and find the actual rise and run, just multiply the sine and cosine by the radius. For instance, if the circle has radius 5, the run at an angle of 1° is 5 cos(1°)

[ Unit-circle definitions

The unit circle

The six trigonometric functions can also be defined in terms of the unit circle, the circle of radius one centered at the origin. The unit circle definition provides little in the way of practical calculation; indeed it relies on right triangles for most angles.

The unit circle definition does, however, permit the definition of the trigonometric functions for all positive and negative arguments, not just for angles between 0 and π/2 radians.

It also provides a single visual picture that encapsulates at once all the important triangles. From the Pythagorean theorem the equation for the unit circle is:

$x^2 + y^2 = 1. \,$

In the picture, some common angles, measured in radians, are given. Measurements in the counterclockwise direction are positive angles and measurements in the clockwise direction are negative angles.

Let a line through the origin, making an angle of θ with the positive half of the x-axis, intersect the unit circle. The x- and y-coordinates of this point of intersection are equal to cos θ and sin θ, respectively.

The triangle in the graphic enforces the formula; the radius is equal to the hypotenuse and has length 1, so we have sin θ = y/1 and cos θ = x/1. The unit circle can be thought of as a way of looking at an infinite number of triangles by varying the lengths of their legs but keeping the lengths of their hypotenuses equal to 1.

Note that these values can easily be memorized in the form

$\tfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{0},\quad \tfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{1},\quad \tfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{2},\quad \tfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{3},\quad \tfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{4}.$

The sine and cosine functions graphed on the Cartesian plane.

For angles greater than 2π or less than −2π, simply continue to rotate around the circle; sine and cosine are periodic functions with period 2π:

$\sin\theta = \sin\left(\theta + 2\pi k \right),\,$

$\cos\theta = \cos\left(\theta + 2\pi k \right),\,$

for any angle θ and any integer k.

The smallest positive period of a periodic function is called the primitive period of the function.

The primitive period of the sine or cosine is a full circle, i.e. 2π radians or 360 degrees.

Trigonometric functions: Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cosecant, Secant, Cotangent

Above, only sine and cosine were defined directly by the unit circle, but other trigonometric functions can be defined by:

$\tan\theta = \frac{\sin\theta}{\cos\theta},\ \cot\theta = \frac{\cos\theta}{\sin\theta} = \frac{1}{\tan\theta}\,$

$\sec\theta = \frac{1}{\cos\theta},\ \csc\theta = \frac{1}{\sin\theta}\,$

So :

The primitive period of the secant, or cosecant is also a full circle, i.e. 2π radians or 360 degrees.
The primitive period of the tangent or cotangent is only a half-circle, i.e. π radians or 180 degrees.

To the right is an image that displays a noticeably different graph of the trigonometric function f(θ)= tan(θ) graphed on the Cartesian plane.

Note that its x-intercepts correspond to that of sin(θ) while its undefined values correspond to the x-intercepts of the cos(θ).
Observe that the function's results change slowly around angles of kπ, but change rapidly at angles close to (k + 1/2)π.
The graph of the tangent function also has a vertical asymptote at θ = (k + 1/2)π.
This is the case because the function approaches infinity as θ approaches (k + 1/2)π from the left and minus infinity as it approaches (k + 1/2)π from the right.

All of the trigonometric functions of the angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O.

Alternatively, all of the basic trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of a unit circle centered at O (as shown in the picture to the right), and similar such geometric definitions were used historically.

In particular, for a chord AB of the circle, where θ is half of the subtended angle, sin(θ) is AC (half of the chord), a definition introduced in India^[1] (see history).
cos(θ) is the horizontal distance OC, and versin(θ) = 1 − cos(θ) is CD.
tan(θ) is the length of the segment AE of the tangent line through A, hence the word tangent for this function. cot(θ) is another tangent segment, AF.
sec(θ) = OE and csc(θ) = OF are segments of secant lines (intersecting the circle at two points), and can also be viewed as projections of OA along the tangent at A to the horizontal and vertical axes, respectively.
DE is exsec(θ) = sec(θ) − 1 (the portion of the secant outside, or ex, the circle).
From these constructions, it is easy to see that the secant and tangent functions diverge as θ approaches π/2 (90 degrees) and that the cosecant and cotangent diverge as θ approaches zero. (Many similar constructions are possible, and the basic trigonometric identities can also be proven graphically.^[2])

[ Series definitions

The sine function (blue) is closely approximated by its Taylor polynomial of degree 7 (pink) for a full cycle centered on the origin.

Using only geometry and properties of limits, it can be shown that the derivative of sine is cosine and the derivative of cosine is the negative of sine. (Here, and generally in calculus, all angles are measured in radians; see also the significance of radians below.) One can then use the theory of Taylor series to show that the following identities hold for all real numbers x:^[3]

$\begin{align} \sin x & = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots \\[8pt] & = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^nx^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!}, \\[8pt] \cos x & = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} - \frac{x^6}{6!} + \cdots \\[8pt] & = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^nx^{2n}}{(2n)!}. \end{align}$

These identities are sometimes taken as the definitions of the sine and cosine function. They are often used as the starting point in a rigorous treatment of trigonometric functions and their applications (e.g., in Fourier series), since the theory of infinite series can be developed from the foundations of the real number system, independent of any geometric considerations. The differentiability and continuity of these functions are then established from the series definitions alone.

Combining these two series gives Euler's formula: cos x + i sin x = e^ix.

Other series can be found.^[4] For the following trigonometric functions:

U_n is the nth up/down number,

B_n is the nth Bernoulli number, and

E_n (below) is the nth Euler number.

Tangent

$\begin{align} \tan x & {} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{U_{2n+1} x^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!} \\[8pt] & {} = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n-1} 2^{2n} (2^{2n}-1) B_{2n} x^{2n-1}}{(2n)!} \\[8pt] & {} = x + \frac{x^3}{3} + \frac{2 x^5}{15} + \frac{17 x^7}{315} + \cdots, \qquad \text{for } |x| < \frac{\pi}{2}. \end{align}$

When this series for the tangent function is expressed in a form in which the denominators are the corresponding factorials, and the numerators, called the "tangent numbers", have a combinatorial interpretation: they enumerate alternating permutations of finite sets of odd cardinality.^{[citation needed]}

Cosecant

$\begin{align} \csc x & {} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n+1} 2 (2^{2n-1}-1) B_{2n} x^{2n-1}}{(2n)!} \\[8pt] & {} = \frac {1} {x} + \frac {x} {6} + \frac {7 x^3} {360} + \frac {31 x^5} {15120} + \cdots, \qquad \text{for } 0 < |x| < \pi. \end{align}$

Secant

$\begin{align} \sec x & {} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{U_{2n} x^{2n}}{(2n)!} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n E_{2n} x^{2n}}{(2n)!} \\[8pt] & {} = 1 + \frac {x^2} {2} + \frac {5 x^4} {24} + \frac {61 x^6} {720} + \cdots, \qquad \text{for } |x| < \frac{\pi}{2}. \end{align}$

When this series for the secant function is expressed in a form in which the denominators are the corresponding factorials, the numerators, called the "secant numbers", have a combinatorial interpretation: they enumerate alternating permutations of finite sets of even cardinality.^{[citation needed]}

Cotangent

$\begin{align} \cot x & {} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n 2^{2n} B_{2n} x^{2n-1}}{(2n)!} \\[8pt] & {} = \frac {1} {x} - \frac {x}{3} - \frac {x^3} {45} - \frac {2 x^5} {945} - \cdots, \qquad \text{for } 0 < |x| < \pi. \end{align}$

From a theorem in complex analysis, there is a unique analytic continuation of this real function to the domain of complex numbers. They have the same Taylor series, and so the trigonometric functions are defined on the complex numbers using the Taylor series above.

[ Relationship to exponential function and complex numbers

Euler's formula illustrated with the three dimensional helix, starting with the 2-D orthogonal components of the unit circle, sine and cosine (using θ = t ).

It can be shown from the series definitions^[5] that the sine and cosine functions are the imaginary and real parts, respectively, of the complex exponential function when its argument is purely imaginary:

$e^{i \theta} = \cos\theta + i\sin\theta. \,$

This identity is called Euler's formula. In this way, trigonometric functions become essential in the geometric interpretation of complex analysis. For example, with the above identity, if one considers the unit circle in the complex plane, defined by e^ix, and as above, we can parametrize this circle in terms of cosines and sines, the relationship between the complex exponential and the trigonometric functions becomes more apparent.

Furthermore, this allows for the definition of the trigonometric functions for complex arguments z:

$\sin z = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{(-1)^{n}}{(2n+1)!}z^{2n+1} = \frac{e^{i z} - e^{-i z}}{2i}\, = \frac{\sinh \left( i z\right) }{i}$

$\cos z = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{(-1)^{n}}{(2n)!}z^{2n} = \frac{e^{i z} + e^{-i z}}{2}\, = \cosh \left(i z\right)$

where i² = −1. Also, for purely real x,

$\cos x = \mbox{Re } (e^{i x}) \,$

$\sin x = \mbox{Im } (e^{i x}) \,$

It is also sometimes useful to express the complex sine and cosine functions in terms of the real and imaginary parts of their arguments.

$\sin (x + iy) = \sin x \cosh y + i \cos x \sinh y,\,$

$\cos (x + iy) = \cos x \cosh y - i \sin x \sinh y.\,$

This exhibits a deep relationship between the complex sine and cosine functions and their real and real hyperbolic counterparts.

[ Complex graphs

In the following graphs, the domain is the complex plane pictured, and the range values are indicated at each point by color. Brightness indicates the size (absolute value) of the range value, with black being zero. Hue varies with argument, or angle, measured from the positive real axis. (more)

**Trigonometric functions in the complex plane**

$\sin z\,$	$\cos z\,$	$\tan z\,$	$\cot z\,$	$\sec z\,$	$\csc z\,$

[ Definitions via differential equations

Both the sine and cosine functions satisfy the differential equation

$y'' = -y.\,$

That is to say, each is the additive inverse of its own second derivative. Within the 2-dimensional function space V consisting of all solutions of this equation,

the sine function is the unique solution satisfying the initial condition $\scriptstyle \left( y'(0), y(0) \right) = (1, 0)\,$ and
the cosine function is the unique solution satisfying the initial condition $\scriptstyle \left( y'(0), y(0) \right) = (0, 1)\,$ .

Since the sine and cosine functions are linearly independent, together they form a basis of V. This method of defining the sine and cosine functions is essentially equivalent to using Euler's formula. (See linear differential equation.) It turns out that this differential equation can be used not only to define the sine and cosine functions but also to prove the trigonometric identities for the sine and cosine functions.

Further, the observation that sine and cosine satisfies y′′ = −y means that they are eigenfunctions of the second-derivative operator.

The tangent function is the unique solution of the nonlinear differential equation

$y' = 1 + y^2\,$

satisfying the initial condition y(0) = 0. There is a very interesting visual proof that the tangent function satisfies this differential equation; see Needham's Visual Complex Analysis.^[6]

[ The significance of radians

Radians specify an angle by measuring the length around the path of the unit circle and constitute a special argument to the sine and cosine functions. In particular, only those sines and cosines which map radians to ratios satisfy the differential equations which classically describe them. If an argument to sine or cosine in radians is scaled by frequency,

$f(x) = \sin kx, \,$

then the derivatives will scale by amplitude.

$f'(x) = k\cos kx. \,$

Here, k is a constant that represents a mapping between units. If x is in degrees, then

$k = \frac{\pi}{180^\circ}.$

This means that the second derivative of a sine in degrees satisfies not the differential equation

$y'' = -y\,$

but rather

$y'' = -k^2 y.\,$

The cosine's second derivative behaves similarly.

This means that these sines and cosines are different functions, and that the fourth derivative of sine will be sine again only if the argument is in radians.

[ Identities

Main article: List of trigonometric identities

Many identities exist which interrelate the trigonometric functions. Among the most frequently used is the Pythagorean identity, which states that for any angle, the square of the sine plus the square of the cosine is 1. This is easy to see by studying a right triangle of hypotenuse 1 and applying the Pythagorean theorem. In symbolic form, the Pythagorean identity is written

$\sin^2 x + \cos^2 x = 1, \,$

where sin² x + cos² x is standard notation for (sin x)² + (cos x)².

Other key relationships are the sum and difference formulas, which give the sine and cosine of the sum and difference of two angles in terms of sines and cosines of the angles themselves. These can be derived geometrically, using arguments which go back to Ptolemy; one can also produce them algebraically using Euler's formula.

$\sin \left(x+y\right)=\sin x \cos y + \cos x \sin y, \,$

$\cos \left(x+y\right)=\cos x \cos y - \sin x \sin y, \,$

$\sin \left(x-y\right)=\sin x \cos y - \cos x \sin y, \,$

$\cos \left(x-y\right)=\cos x \cos y + \sin x \sin y. \,$

When the two angles are equal, the sum formulas reduce to simpler equations known as the double-angle formulae.

These identities can also be used to derive the product-to-sum identities that were used in antiquity to transform the product of two numbers into a sum of numbers and greatly speed operations, much like the logarithm function.

[ Calculus

For integrals and derivatives of trigonometric functions, see the relevant sections of List of differentiation identities, Lists of integrals and List of integrals of trigonometric functions. Below is the list of the derivatives and integrals of the six basic trigonometric functions. The number C is a constant of integration.

$\ \ \ \ f(x)$	$\ \ \ \ f'(x)$	$\int f(x)\,dx$
$\,\ \sin x$	$\,\ \cos x$	$\,\ -\cos x + C$
$\,\ \cos x$	$\,\ -\sin x$	$\,\ \sin x + C$
$\,\ \tan x$	$\,\ \sec^2 x = 1+\tan^2 x$	$-\ln \left \|\cos x\right \| + C$
$\,\ \cot x$	$\,\ -\csc^2 x = -(1+\cot^2 x)$	$\ln \left \|\sin x\right \| + C$
$\,\ \sec x$	$\,\ \sec x\tan x$	$\ln \left \|\sec x + \tan x\right \| + C$
$\,\ \csc x$	$\,\ -\csc x \cot x$	$\ -\ln \left \|\csc x + \cot x\right \| + C$

[ Definitions using functional equations

In mathematical analysis, one can define the trigonometric functions using functional equations based on properties like the sum and difference formulas. Taking as given these formulas and the Pythagorean identity, for example, one can prove that only two real functions satisfy those conditions. Symbolically, we say that there exists exactly one pair of real functions — $\scriptstyle \sin\,$ and $\scriptstyle \cos\,$ — such that for all real numbers $\scriptstyle x\,$ and $\scriptstyle y\,$ , the following equations hold:^{[citation needed]}

$\sin^2 x + \cos^2 x = 1\,$

$\sin(x\pm y) = \sin x\cos y \pm \cos x\sin y\,$

$\cos(x\pm y) = \cos x\cos y \mp \sin x\sin y\,$

with the added condition that $\scriptstyle 0 < x\cos x < \sin x < x\,$ for $\scriptstyle 0 < x < 1\,$ .

Other derivations, starting from other functional equations, are also possible, and such derivations can be extended to thee complex numbers. As an example, this derivation can be used to define trigonometry in Galois fields.

[ Computation

Source: this wikipedia article, under CC-BY-SA.

Cosine